He was visiting the United States when
Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 and, being Jewish, did not go back to Germany, where he had been a professor at the
Berlin Academy of Sciences. He settled in the U.S., becoming an
American citizen in 1940.
[7] On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a
letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential development of "extremely powerful bombs of a new type" and recommending that the U.S. begin similar research. This eventually led to what would become the
Manhattan Project. Einstein supported defending the Allied forces, but largely denounced the idea of using the newly discovered
nuclear fission as a weapon. Later, with the British philosopher
Bertrand Russell, Einstein signed the
Russell–Einstein Manifesto, which highlighted the danger of nuclear weapons. Einstein was affiliated with the
Institute for Advanced Study in
Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955.
Biography
Early life and education
Einstein at the age of three in 1882
Albert Einstein in 1893 (age 14)
Einstein's matriculation certificate at the age of 17, showing his final grades from the Argovian cantonal school (aargauische Kantonsschule, on a scale of 1-6, with 6 being the best mark).
The Einsteins were non-observant
Ashkenazi Jews. Albert attended a
Catholic elementary school from the age of five for three years. At the age of eight, he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium (now known as the Albert Einstein Gymnasium), where he received advanced primary and secondary school education until he left Germany seven years later.
[11] Contrary to popular suggestions that he had struggled with early speech difficulties, the Albert Einstein Archives indicate he excelled at the first school that he attended.
[12] He was right-handed;
[12][13] there appears to be no evidence for the widespread popular belief
[14] that he was left-handed.
His father once showed him a pocket compass; Einstein realized that there must be something causing the needle to move, despite the apparent "empty space".
[15] As he grew, Einstein built models and mechanical devices for fun and began to show a talent for mathematics.
[10] When Einstein was ten years old, Max Talmud (later changed to
Max Talmey), a poor Jewish medical student from Poland, was introduced to the Einstein family by his brother. During weekly visits over the next five years, he gave the boy popular books on science, mathematical texts and philosophical writings. These included Immanuel Kant's
Critique of Pure Reason, and
Euclid's Elements (which Einstein called the "holy little geometry book").
[16][17][fn 1]
In 1894, his father's company failed: direct current (DC) lost the
War of Currents to
alternating current (AC). In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to
Milan and then, a few months later, to
Pavia. When the family moved to Pavia, Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursue
electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the school's regimen and teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought were lost in strict
rote learning. At the end of December 1894, he travelled to Italy to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note.
[19] It was during his time in Italy that he wrote a short essay with the title "On the Investigation of the State of the
Ether in a Magnetic Field."
[20][21]
In 1895, at the age of sixteen, Einstein sat the entrance examinations for the
Swiss Federal Polytechnic in
Zürich (later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule ETH). He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the examination,
[22] but obtained exceptional grades in physics and mathematics.
[23] On the advice of the Principal of the Polytechnic, he attended the
Argovian cantonal school (
gymnasium) in
Aarau, Switzerland, in 1895–96 to complete his secondary schooling. While lodging with the family of Professor
Jost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. (Albert's sister
Maja later married Wintelers' son Paul.)
[24] In January 1896, with his father's approval, he renounced his
citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg to avoid
military service.
[25] In September 1896, he passed the Swiss
Matura with mostly good grades, including a top grade of 6 in physics and mathematical subjects, on a scale of 1-6,
[26] and, though only seventeen, enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Zürich Polytechnic. Marie Winteler moved to
Olsberg, Switzerland for a teaching post.
Einstein's future wife,
Mileva Marić, also enrolled at the Polytechnic that same year, the only woman among the six students in the mathematics and physics section of the teaching diploma course. Over the next few years, Einstein and Marić's friendship developed into romance, and they read books together on extra-curricular physics in which Einstein was taking an increasing interest. In 1900, Einstein was awarded the Zürich Polytechnic teaching diploma, but Marić failed the examination with a poor grade in the mathematics component, theory of functions.
[27] There have been claims that Marić collaborated with Einstein on his celebrated 1905 papers,
[28][29] but historians of physics who have studied the issue find no evidence that she made any substantive contributions.
[30][31][32][33]
Marriages and children
With the discovery and publication in 1987 of an early correspondence between Einstein and Marić it became known that they had a daughter they called
"Lieserl" in their letters, born in early 1902 in
Novi Sad where Marić was staying with her parents. Marić returned to Switzerland without the child, whose real name and fate are unknown. Einstein probably never saw his daughter, and the contents of a letter he wrote to Marić in September 1903 suggest that she was either adopted or died of
scarlet fever in infancy.
[34][35]
Elsa Einstein with her husband.
Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, the couple's first son,
Hans Albert Einstein, was born in
Bern, Switzerland. Their second son,
Eduard, was born in Zurich in July 1910. In 1914, Einstein moved to Berlin, while his wife remained in Zurich with their sons. They divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived apart for five years.
Einstein
married Elsa Löwenthal on 2 June 1919, after having had a relationship with her since 1912. She was his first cousin maternally and his second cousin paternally. In 1933, they emigrated to the United States. In 1935, Elsa Einstein was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems and died in December 1936.
[36]
Patent office
Left to right: Conrad Habicht,
Maurice Solovine and Einstein, who founded the Olympia Academy
After graduating, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching post. He acquired Swiss citizenship in February 1901,
[37] but was not
conscriptedfor medical reasons. With the help of
Marcel Grossmann's father Einstein secured a job in Bern at the
Federal Office for Intellectual Property, the patent office,
[38] as an assistant
examiner.
[39] He evaluated
patent applications for electromagnetic devices. In 1903, Einstein's position at the Swiss Patent Office became permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology".
[40]
Much of his work at the patent office related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up conspicuously in the
thought experiments that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time.
[41]
With a few friends he had met in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group, self-mockingly named "
The Olympia Academy", which met regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Their readings included the works of
Henri Poincaré,
Ernst Mach, and
David Hume, which influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook.
Academic career
Einstein's official 1921 portrait after receiving the Nobel Prize in Physics
In 1901, his paper
"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen" ("Conclusions from the Capillarity Phenomena") was published in the prestigious
Annalen der Physik.
[42][43] On 30 April 1905, Einstein completed his thesis, with
Alfred Kleiner, Professor of Experimental Physics, serving as
pro-forma advisor. Einstein was awarded a PhD by the
University of Zürich. His dissertation was entitled "A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions."
[44][45]This paper included Einstein's initial estimates of
Avogadro constant as
2.2×1023 based on diffusion coefficients and viscosities of sugar solutions in water.
[46] That same year, which has been called Einstein's
annus mirabilis (miracle year), he published
four groundbreaking papers, on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the equivalence of mass and energy, which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world.
During 1911, he had calculated that, based on his new theory of general relativity, light from another star would be bent by the Sun's gravity. That prediction was claimed confirmed by observations made by a British expedition led by Sir
Arthur Eddington during the
solar eclipse of 29 May 1919. International media reports of this made Einstein world famous. On 7 November 1919, the leading British newspaper
The Times printed a banner headline that read: "Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown".
[51]
Travels abroad, 1921-1922
Einstein in New York, 1921, his first visit to the United States
He also published an essay, "My First Impression of the U.S.A.," in July 1921, in which he tried briefly to describe some characteristics of Americans, much as
Alexis de Tocqueville did, who published his own impressions in
Democracy in America (1835).
[53] For some of his observations, Einstein was clearly surprised: "What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to life . . . The American is friendly, self-confident, optimistic, and without envy."
[54]:20
In 1922, his travels took him to Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour. He visited
Singapore,
Ceylon and
Japan, where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. His first lecture in Tokyo lasted four hours, after which he met the emperor and empress at the
Imperial Palace, where thousands came to watch. Einstein later gave his impressions of the Japanese in a letter to his sons:
[55]:307 "Of all the people I have met, I like the Japanese most, as they are modest, intelligent, considerate, and have a feel for art."
[55]:308
On his return voyage, he also visited
Palestine for 12 days in what would become his only visit to that region. "He was greeted with great British pomp, as if he were a head of state rather than a theoretical physicist", writes Isaacson. This included a cannon salute upon his arrival at the residence of the British high commissioner,
Sir Herbert Samuel. During one reception given to him, the building was "stormed by throngs who wanted to hear him". In Einstein's talk to the audience, he expressed his happiness over the event:
I consider this the greatest day of my life. Before, I have always found something to regret in the Jewish soul, and that is the forgetfulness of its own people. Today, I have been made happy by the sight of the Jewish people learning to recognize themselves and to make themselves recognized as a force in the world.
[56]:308
Travel to U.S., 1930-1931
In December 1930, Einstein visited America for the second time, originally intended as a two-month working visit as a research fellow at the
California Institute of Technology. After the national attention he received during his first trip to the U.S., he and his arrangers aimed to protect his privacy. Although swamped with telegrams and invitations to receive awards or speak publicly, he declined them all.
[56]:368
Charlie Chaplin and Einstein at the Hollywood premier of
City Lights, January 1931
After arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, including
Chinatown, a lunch with the editors of the
New York Times, and a performance of
Carmen at the
Metropolitan Opera, where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by Mayor
Jimmy Walker and met the president of
Columbia University, who described Einstein as "the ruling monarch of the mind."
[56]:370 Harry Emerson Fosdick, pastor at New York's
Riverside Church, gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance.
[56]:370 Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people at
Madison Square Garden during a
Hanukkah celebration.
[56]:370
Einstein next traveled to California where he met
Caltech president and Nobel laureate,
Robert A. Millikan. His friendship with Millikan was "awkward", as Millikan "had a penchant for patriotic militarism," where Einstein was a pronounced pacifist.
[56]:373 During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good.
[56]:374
This aversion to war also led Einstein to befriend author
Upton Sinclair and film star
Charlie Chaplin, both noted for their pacifism.
Carl Laemmle, head of
Universal Studios, gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin recalled Einstein as being amiable, calm, but with energy driven by an underlying emotionality.
[57]:320
Chaplin also remembers Elsa telling him about the time Einstein conceived his
theory of relativity. During breakfast one morning, he seemed lost in thought and ignored his food. She asked him if something was bothering him. He sat down at his piano and started playing. He continued playing and writing notes for half an hour, then went upstairs to his study, where he remained for two weeks, with Elsa bringing up his food. At the end of the two weeks he came downstairs with two sheets of paper bearing his theory.
[57]:320
Chaplin's film,
City Lights, was to premier a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guest. Considered by Isaacson as "one of the most memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity," he describes the event with "Einstein and Chaplin arriving together, dressed in black tie, with Elsa beaming." They were applauded as they entered the theater.
[56]:374 Chaplin visited Einstein during a later trip to Berlin, and recalled his "modest little flat" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was "possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis."
[57]:322
Emigration to U.S. in 1933
Cartoon of Einstein, who has shed his "Pacifism" wings, standing next to a pillar labeled "World Peace." He is rolling up his sleeves and holding a sword labeled "Preparedness" (by Charles R. Macauley, circa 1933).
In February 1933 while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not to return to Germany with the rise to power of the
Nazis under Germany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler.
[58][59] In a letter that month, he wrote, "Because of Hitler, I don't dare step on German soil."
[56]:404
While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at the
California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. He and his wife Elsa returned to Belgium by ship in March, and during the trip they learned that their cottage was raided by the Nazis and his personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing in
Antwerp on 28 March, he immediately went to the German consulate and turned in his passport, formally renouncing his German citizenship.
[56] A few years later, the Nazis sold his boat and turned his cottage into an Aryan youth camp.
[60]
Refugee status
In April 1933, he also discovered that the new German government had passed laws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities.
[56]Historian
Gerald Holton describes how, with "virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues," thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed.
[54]
A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by
Nazi book burnings, with Nazi propaganda minister
Joseph Goebbels proclaiming, "Jewish intellectualism is dead."
[56] Einstein also learned that his name was on a list of assassination targets, with a "$5,000 bounty on his head."
[56] One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged".
[56] In a subsequent letter to physicist and friend,
Max Born, who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, "... I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise."
[56] After moving to the U.S., he described the book burnings as a "spontaneous emotional outburst" by those who "shun popular enlightenment," and "more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence."
[61]:197
Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. He rented a house in Belgium where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he went to England for about six weeks at the personal invitation of British Commander
Oliver Locker-Lampson, who became friends with Einstein in the preceding years. Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meet
Winston Churchill at his home, and later,
Austen Chamberlain and former Prime Minister
Lloyd George.
[56]:419–420 Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. Churchill responded immediately, notes British historian
Martin Gilbert, and sent his friend, physicist
Frederick Lindemann to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities.
[62] Churchill later declared that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they lowered their "technical standards," and had put
alliedtechnology ahead of theirs.
[62]
Einstein also contacted leaders of other nations, including
Turkey's Prime Minister,
İsmet İnönü, who he wrote in September 1933 requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. A Turkish newspaper headline in 2006, entitled "A Request From the Great Genius to the Young Republic," by historian
Murat Bardakçı, was commemorating Turkey's 83rd anniversary as a Republic. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees in 1933 numbered 30, later grew to over 190 scientists, and eventually totaled over "1,000 saved individuals."
[63] One writer credits Turkey's first president,
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, with welcoming them to their universities while other countries, including the U.S., were still hesitating.
[64]
Locker-Lampson submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, with Einstein then making a number of public appearances to explain the crisis brewing in Europe. At one such event at the
Royal Albert Hall, he was "wildly cheered" by a packed audience.
[65] Upon introducing the bill to Parliament, Locker-Lampson told its members that Germany was "destroying its culture and threatening the safety of its greatest thinkers," writes Isaacson. Locker-Lampson stated that "She has turned out her most glorious citizen. . . . How proud this country must be to have offered him shelter at Oxford."
[56]:420 The bill failed to become law, however, and Einstein then decided to accept an earlier offer he received from the Princeton
Institute for Advanced Study to be a resident scholar.
[66]
Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study
Portrait taken in 1935 in Princeton
In October 1933 he returned to the U.S. and took up a position at the
Institute for Advanced Study (in
Princeton, New Jersey).
[66][67] The institute had become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany.
[68] At the time most American universities including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal Jewish faculty and students as a result of their
Jewish quota, which lasted until the late 1940s, after WWII had ended.
[68]
He was still undecided on his future (he had offers from European universities, including
Oxford), but in 1935 he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship.
[66][69]
His affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955.
[70] He was one of the four first selected (two of the others being
John von Neumann and
Kurt Gödel) at the new Institute, where he soon developed a close friendship with Gödel. The two would take long walks together discussing their work. His last assistant was
Bruria Kaufman, who later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a
unified field theory and to refute the
accepted interpretation of
quantum physics, both unsuccessfully.
Other scientists also fled to America. Among them were Nobel laureates and professors of
theoretical physics. With so many other Jewish scientists now forced by circumstances to live in America, often working side by side, Einstein wrote to a friend, "For me the most beautiful thing is to be in contact with a few fine Jews—a few millennia of a civilized past do mean something after all." In another letter he writes, "In my whole life I have never felt so Jewish as now."
[56]
World War II and the Manhattan Project
In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist
Leó Szilárd attempted to alert Washington of ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted.
[71] Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such as
Edward Teller and
Eugene Wigner, "regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the
race to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon."
[55]:630[72] On July 12, 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein
[73] and they explained the possibility of atomic bombs, to which
pacifist Einstein replied:
Daran habe ich gar nicht gedacht ("I had not thought of that at all").
[74] Einstein was persuaded to lend his prestige by writing
a letter with Szilárd to President
Franklin D. Roosevelt to alert him of the possibility. The letter also recommended that the U.S. government pay attention to and become directly involved in uranium research and associated chain reaction research.
The letter is believed to be "arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II".
[75] In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections with the
Belgian Royal Family[76] and the Belgian queen mother
[71] to get access with a personal envoy to the White House's Oval Office.
[71]President Roosevelt could not take the risk of allowing Hitler to possess atomic bombs first. As a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the U.S. entered the "race" to develop the bomb, drawing on its "immense material, financial, and scientific resources" to initiate the
Manhattan Project. It became the only country to successfully develop an atomic bomb during World War II.
For Einstein, "war was a disease ... [and] he called for resistance to war." By signing the letter to Roosevelt he went against his pacifist principles.
[77] In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend,
Linus Pauling, "I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them ..."
[78]
US citizenship
Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study (in Princeton, New Jersey), he expressed his appreciation of the "
meritocracy" in American culture when compared to Europe. According to Isaacson, he recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased", without social barriers, and as a result, the individual was "encouraged" to be more creative, a trait he valued from his own early education. Einstein wrote:
[56]:432
What makes the new arrival devoted to this country is the democratic trait among the people. No one humbles himself before another person or class ... American youth has the good fortune not to have its outlook troubled by outworn traditions.
Einstein worked in 1943 and 1944 as a $25-per-day consultant to the Research and Development Division of the
U.S. Navy's Division of Ordnance. He wrote to
Stephen Brunauer, the research chemist who recruited him, that he hoped to avoid visits to Washington, D.C., "knowing that I would be very much molested by snobbish people".
[79]
Personal life
Supporter of civil rights
Einstein actively supported racial tolerance and joined
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People(NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for the
civil rights of African Americans. He considered racism America's "worst disease,"
[80] seeing it as "handed down from one generation to the next."
[81] As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activist
W. E. B. Du Bois and was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial in 1951.
[82]:565 When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case.
[83]
Einstein giving lecture at Lincoln University, 1946
Einstein witnessed prejudice first hand after seeing famed black opera singer,
Marian Anderson, perform at Princeton's concert hall in 1937. When he learned that an inn at Princeton turned her away because of her race, he invited her to stay at his home, which she did. Two years later, in 1939, when she was barred from singing at the
DAR Constitution Hall in Washington, D.C., she instead gave a free concert at the
Lincoln Memorial in front of 75,000 people, after which she again stayed with Einstein. She was a guest in his home until shortly before he died in 1955, when she appeared at the
Metropolitan Opera House in New York. About that visit, she later wrote, "I knew this was really good-bye."
[80]:43
Princeton at that time was segregated, writes historian Rodger Taylor, noting that no high schools there admitted blacks.
[80] Black singer-activist
Paul Robeson, who was born in Princeton, developed a friendship with Einstein. They had in common a mutual concern about racism and fascism in Europe, and worked together on the American Crusade to End Lynching. Their friendship, which lasted 20 years, had been slated to be the subject of a film, starring
Danny Glover as Robeson and
Ben Kingsley as Einstein.
[83] After a visit with Einstein at his home, Robeson said, "For me, there is something inspiring about the leading part played by Dr. Einstein in this blast for freedom."
[82]
In 1946 Einstein visited
Lincoln University in Pennsylvania where he was awarded an honorary degree. Lincoln was the first university to grant college degrees to blacks, including
Langston Hughes and
Thurgood Marshall. To its students, Einstein gave a speech about racism in America, adding, “I do not intend to be quiet about it.”
[83] A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student,
[83] and black physicist
Sylvester James Gates states that Einstein had been one of his early science heroes, later finding out about Einstein's support for civil rights.
[83]
Assisting Zionist causes
Einstein was a figurehead leader in helping establish
Hebrew University of Jerusalem, which opened in 1925, and was among its first Board of Governors. Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the president of the
World Zionist Organization,
Chaim Weizmann, to help raise funds for the planned university.
[56]:290 He also submitted various suggestions as to its initial programs.
Among those, he advised first creating an Institute of Agriculture in order to settle the undeveloped land. That should be followed, he suggested, by a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology, to fight the various ongoing epidemics such as
Malaria, which he called an "evil" that was undermining a third of the country's development.
[84]:161 Establishing an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic, for scientific exploration of the country and its historical monuments, was also important.
[84]:158 In a published essay in August 1921, he wrote:
All my life I have considered it a sacred duty to contribute, the the best of my ability, to make the Hebrew University in Palestine a success.
[84]:157
After the death of Israel's first president,
Chaim Weizmann, in November 1952, Prime Minister
David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the position of
President of Israel, a mostly ceremonial post.
[85] The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington,
Abba Eban, who explained that the offer "embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons".
[55]:522 Einstein declined, and wrote in his response that he was "deeply moved", and "at once saddened and ashamed" that he could not accept it:
All my life I have dealt with objective matters, hence I lack both the natural aptitude and the experience to deal properly with people and to exercise official function. I am the more distressed over these circumstances because my relationship with the Jewish people became my strongest human tie once I achieved complete clarity about our precarious position among the nations of the world.
[55]:522
Love of music
If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music... I get most joy in life out of music.
Einstein developed an appreciation of music at an early age. His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the
violin, not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate
German culture. According to conductor
Leon Botstein, Einstein is said to have begun playing when he was five, but did not enjoy it at that age.
[88]
Albert Einstein playing
violin
When he turned thirteen he discovered the violin sonatas of
Mozart. "Einstein fell in love" with Mozart's music, notes Botstein, and learned to play music more willingly. According to Einstein, he taught himself to play without "ever practicing systematically", adding that "Love is a better teacher than a sense of duty."
[88] At age seventeen, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau as he played
Beethoven's
violin sonatas, the examiner stating afterward that his playing was "remarkable and revealing of 'great insight.'" What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein "displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student."
[88]
Botstein notes that music assumed a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein played
chamber music were a few professionals, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music also became a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zürich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, among others. In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles and played some of Beethoven and Mozart's works with members of the
Zoellner Quartet, recently retired from two decades of acclaimed touring all across the United States; Einstein later presented the family patriarch with an autographed photograph as a memento.
[89][90] Near the end of his life, when the young
Juilliard Quartet visited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them; although they slowed the tempo to accommodate his lesser technical abilities, Botstein notes the quartet was "impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation."
[88]
Political and religious views
Einstein's political view was in favor of
socialism and critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as "
Why Socialism?".
[91][92] Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics.
[66]
Einstein's views about religious belief have been collected from interviews and original writings.
Death
On 17 April 1955, Albert Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an
abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by
Dr. Rudolph Nissen in 1948.
[96] He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the State of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live long enough to complete it.
[97]
Einstein refused surgery, saying: "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly."
[98] He died in
Princeton Hospital early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end.
During the autopsy, the pathologist of Princeton Hospital,
Thomas Stoltz Harvey, removed
Einstein's brain for preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that the
neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.
[99] Einstein's remains were
cremated and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location.
[100][101]
In his lecture at Einstein's memorial, nuclear physicist
Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression of him as a person: "He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness ... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn."
[102]
Scientific career
The photoelectric effect. Incoming photons on the left strike a metal plate (bottom), and eject electrons, depicted as flying off to the right.
1905 – Annus Mirabilis papers
| Title (translated) | Area of focus | Received | Published | Significance |
|---|
| On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light | Photoelectric effect | 18 March | 9 June | Resolved an unsolved puzzle by suggesting that energy is exchanged only in discrete amounts (quanta).[104]This idea was pivotal to the early development of quantum theory.[105] |
| On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, as Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat | Brownian motion | 11 May | 18 July | Explained empirical evidence for the atomic theory, supporting the application of statistical physics. |
| On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies | Special relativity | 30 June | 26 September | Reconciled Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics by introducing major changes to mechanics close to the speed of light, resulting from analysis based on empirical evidence that the speed of light is independent of the motion of the observer.[106] Discredited the concept of a "luminiferous ether."[107] |
| Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content? | Matter–energy equivalence | 27 September | 21 November | Equivalence of matter and energy, E = mc2 (and by implication, the ability of gravity to "bend" light), the existence of "rest energy", and the basis of nuclear energy. |
Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics
Albert Einstein's first paper
[108] submitted in 1900 to
Annalen der Physik was on
capillary attraction. It was published in 1901 with the title "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen", which translates as "Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpret
atomic phenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena.
[108]
General principles
Theory of relativity and E = mc²
Einstein's "
Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciles
Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics, by introducing major changes to mechanics close to the
speed of light. This later became known as Einstein's
special theory of relativity.
Consequences of this include the
time-space frame of a moving body appearing to
slow down and
contract (in the direction of motion) when measured in the frame of the observer. This paper also argued that the idea of a
luminiferous aether—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous.
[109]
In his paper on
mass–energy equivalence, Einstein produced
E =
mc2 from his special relativity equations.
[110] Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with
Max Planck.
[111][112]
Photons and energy quanta
Main articles:
Photon and
Quantum
In a 1905 paper,
[113] Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (
quanta). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with
Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of
Compton scattering.
Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency
f is associated with a collection of
photons with energy
hf each, where
h is
Planck's constant. He does not say much more, because he is not sure how the particles are related to the wave. But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect.
[114]
Quantized atomic vibrations
Main article:
Einstein solid
In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be different, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics.
Peter Debye refined this model.
[115]
Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables
Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems. After
Ernest Rutherforddiscovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that the same quantum mechanical postulates introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain the discrete motion of electrons in atoms, and the
periodic table of the elements.
Einstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments
Wilhelm Wien had made. Wien had shown that the hypothesis of
adiabatic invariance of a thermal equilibrium state allows all the
blackbody curves at different temperature to be derived from one another by a
simple shifting process. Einstein noted in 1911 that the same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical motion must be an adiabatic invariant.
Arnold Sommerfeld identified this adiabatic invariant as the
action variable of classical mechanics.
Wave–particle duality
Einstein during his visit to the United States
Theory of critical opalescence
Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to
Rayleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.
[117] Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter.
Zero-point energy
Einstein's physical intuition led him to note that Planck's oscillator energies had an incorrect zero point. He modified Planck's hypothesis by stating that the lowest energy state of an oscillator is equal to
1⁄2hf, to half the energy spacing between levels. This argument, which was made in 1913 in collaboration with
Otto Stern, was based on the thermodynamics of a diatomic molecule which can split apart into two free atoms.
General relativity and the equivalence principle
General relativity (GR) is a
theory of gravitation that was developed by Albert Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to
general relativity, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of space and time by those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern
astrophysics. It provides the foundation for the current understanding of
black holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape.
As Albert Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within
special relativity was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory.
[118] Consequently, in 1908 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article, he argued that
free fall is really inertial motion, and that for a freefalling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the
Equivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomenon of
gravitational time dilation. In 1911, Einstein published another article expanding on the 1907 article, in which additional effects such as the
deflection of light by massive bodies were predicted.
Hole argument and Entwurf theory
Main article:
Hole argument
While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the
gauge invariance in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations, and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only.
In June 1913, the Entwurf ("draft") theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. Simultaneously less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, after more than two years of intensive work Einstein abandoned the theory in November 1915 after realizing that the
hole argument was mistaken.
[119]
Cosmology
In 1917, Einstein applied the General theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole. He apprehended that his equations predicted the universe to be either contracting or expanding. He wanted the universe to be eternal and unchanging, but this type of universe is not consistent with relativity. To fix this, Einstein modified the general theory by introducing a new notion, the
cosmological constant, which he called ''Lambda''.
[120] The purpose of Lambda was to rectify the effects of gravity and allow the whole system to stay balanced. With a positive cosmological constant, the universe could be an eternal static sphere. However, in 1929,
Edwin Hubble confirmed that the universe is expanding, Einstein exclaimed after his
Mount Wilson visit with Hubble: "If there is no quasi-static world, then away with the cosmological term!"
[121][122] and Einstein supposedly discarded the cosmological constant.
Einstein believed a spherical static universe is philosophically preferred, because it would obey
Mach's principle. He had shown that general relativity incorporates Mach's principle to a certain extent in frame dragging by gravitomagnetic fields, but he knew that Mach's idea would not work if space goes on forever. In a closed universe, he believed that Mach's principle would hold. Mach's principle has generated much controversy over the years.
In many of Einstein biographies, writers claim that he called the creation of Lambda his "biggest blunder". Recently, astrophysicist
Mario Livio showed that Einstein possibly never said that.
[123] Instead of discarding Lambda, Einstein was continually experimenting with it.
[124]
In late 2013, Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh, happened to discover a handwritten manuscript by Einstein which was since then overlooked by other scientists. The research paper was titled ''"Zum kosmologischen Problem"'' ("About the Cosmological Problem").
[125][126] And Einstein proposed a revision of his model, still with a cosmological constant, but now the constant was responsible for the creation of new matter as the universe expanded. Thus, the average density of the system never changed. He stated in the paper, ''"In what follows, I would like to draw attention to a solution to equation (1) that can account for Hubbel's [sic] facts, and in which the density is constant over time." And: "If one considers a physically bounded volume, particles of matter will be continually leaving it. For the density to remain constant, new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from space."''
Modern quantum theory
Newspaper headline on May 4, 1935
Einstein was displeased with quantum theory and mechanics (the very theory he helped create), despite its acceptance by other physicists, stating that God "is not playing at dice."
[128] Einstein continued to maintain his disbelief in the theory, and attempted unsuccessfully to disprove it until he died at the age of 76.
[129] In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in
Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of
stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the
maser and the
laser.
[130] This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. Einstein discovered
Louis de Broglie's work, and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein gave a wave equation for
de Broglie waves, which Einstein suggested was the
Hamilton–Jacobi equation of mechanics. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926.
Bose–Einstein statistics
In 1924, Einstein received a description of a
statistical model from Indian physicist
Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the
Zeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the
Bose–Einstein condensate phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures.
[131] It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by
Eric Allin Cornell and
Carl Wieman using
ultra-cooling equipment built at the
NIST–
JILA laboratory at the
University of Colorado at Boulder.
[132] Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of
bosons. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.
[103]
Energy momentum pseudotensor
General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum.
Noether's theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a
Lagrangian with
translation invariance, but
general covariance makes translation invariance into something of a
gauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's presecriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason.
Einstein argued that this is true for fundamental reasons, because the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was in fact the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by
Lev Landau and
Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard.
The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by
Erwin Schrödinger and others.
Unified field theory
Following his research on general relativity, Einstein entered into a series of attempts to generalize his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism as another aspect of a single entity. In 1950, he described his "
unified field theory" in a
Scientific American article entitled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation".
[133] Although he continued to be lauded for his work, Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research, and his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. In his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces, Einstein ignored some mainstream developments in physics, most notably the
strong and
weak nuclear forces, which were not well understood until many years after his death. Mainstream physics, in turn, largely ignored Einstein's approaches to unification. Einstein's dream of unifying other laws of physics with gravity motivates modern quests for a
theory of everything and in particular
string theory, where geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-mechanical setting.
Wormholes
Einstein collaborated with others to produce a model of a
wormhole. His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut and pasted
Schwarzschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches.
If one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the other end would be negatively charged. These properties led Einstein to believe that pairs of particles and antiparticles could be described in this way.
Einstein–Cartan theory
In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the
torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s.
Equations of motion
The theory of general relativity has a fundamental law—the
Einstein equations which describe how space curves, the
geodesic equation which describes how particles move may be derived from the Einstein equations.
Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein equations themselves, not by a new law. So Einstein proposed that the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, would be determined to be a geodesic from general relativity itself.
This was established by Einstein, Infeld, and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and by
Roy Kerr for spinning objects.
Other investigations
Collaboration with other scientists
The 1927
Solvay Conference in Brussels, a gathering of the world's top physicists. Einstein in the center.
Einstein–de Haas experiment
Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons, nowadays known to be the spin. In order to show this, they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a
torsion pendulum. They confirmed that this leads the bar to rotate, because the electron's angular momentum changes as the magnetization changes. This experiment needed to be sensitive, because the angular momentum associated with electrons is small, but it definitively established that electron motion of some kind is responsible for magnetization.
Schrödinger gas model
Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he might be able to reproduce the statistics of a
Bose–Einstein gas by considering a box. Then to each possible quantum motion of a particle in a box associate an independent harmonic oscillator. Quantizing these oscillators, each level will have an integer occupation number, which will be the number of particles in it.
This formulation is a form of
second quantization, but it predates modern quantum mechanics. Erwin Schrödinger applied this to derive the
thermodynamic properties of a
semiclassical ideal gas. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation.
[134]
Einstein refrigerator
In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the
Einstein refrigerator. This
absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.
[135] On 11 November 1930,
U.S. Patent 1,781,541 was awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, as the most promising of their patents were quickly bought up by the Swedish company
Electrolux to protect its refrigeration technology from competition.
[136]
Bohr versus Einstein
Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox
Main article:
EPR paradox
In 1935, Einstein returned to the question of quantum mechanics. He considered how a measurement on one of two entangled particles would affect the other. He noted, along with his collaborators, that by performing different measurements on the distant particle, either of position or momentum, different properties of the entangled partner could be discovered without disturbing it in any way.
He then used a hypothesis of
local realism to conclude that the other particle had these properties already determined. The principle he proposed is that if it is possible to determine what the answer to a position or momentum measurement would be, without in any way disturbing the particle, then the particle actually has values of position or momentum.
This principle distilled the essence of Einstein's objection to quantum mechanics. As a physical principle, it was shown to be incorrect when the
Aspect experiment of 1982 confirmed
Bell's theorem, which had been promulgated in 1964.
Non-scientific legacy
While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to
The Hebrew University. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986
[140]). Barbara Wolff, of The Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the
BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.
[141]
In popular culture
In the period before World War II, the
New York Times published a vignette in their "The Talk of the Town" feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory". He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein."
[143]
Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.
[144] He is a favorite model for depictions of
mad scientists and
absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated.
Time magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true".
[145]
Awards and honors
Publications
- The following publications by Albert Einstein are referenced in this article. A more complete list of his publications may be found at List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein.
- Einstein, Albert (1901), "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen (Conclusions Drawn from the Phenomena of Capillarity)", Annalen der Physik 4 (3): 513,Bibcode:1901AnP...309..513E,doi:10.1002/andp.19013090306
- Einstein, Albert (1905a), "Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt (On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light)", Annalen der Physik 17 (6): 132–148, Bibcode:1905AnP...322..132E,doi:10.1002/andp.19053220607 This annus mirabilis paper on the photoelectric effect was received by Annalen der Physik18 March.
- Einstein, Albert (1905b), A new determination of molecular dimensions. This PhD thesis was completed 30 April and submitted 20 July.
- Einstein, Albert (1905c), "On the Motion – Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat – of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid", Annalen der Physik 17 (8): 549–560, Bibcode:1905AnP...322..549E,doi:10.1002/andp.19053220806. This annus mirabilis paper on Brownian motion was received 11 May.
- Einstein, Albert (1905d), "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", Annalen der Physik 17 (10): 891–921,Bibcode:1905AnP...322..891E,doi:10.1002/andp.19053221004. This annus mirabilis paper on special relativity was received 30 June.
- Einstein, Albert (1905e), "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?", Annalen der Physik 18 (13): 639–641, Bibcode:1905AnP...323..639E,doi:10.1002/andp.19053231314. This annus mirabilis paper on mass-energy equivalence was received 27 September.
- Einstein, Albert (1915), "Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation (The Field Equations of Gravitation)", Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften: 844–847
- Einstein, Albert (1917a), "Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie (Cosmological Considerations in the General Theory of Relativity)", Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften
- Einstein, Albert (1917b), "Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung (On the Quantum Mechanics of Radiation)", Physikalische Zeitschrift 18: 121–128, Bibcode:1917PhyZ...18..121E
- Einstein, Albert (11 July 1923), "Fundamental Ideas and Problems of the Theory of Relativity", Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921, Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Company, archived from the original on 10 February 2007, retrieved 25 March 2007
- Einstein, Albert (1924), "Quantentheorie des einatomigen idealen Gases (Quantum theory of monatomic ideal gases)",Sitzungsberichte der Preussichen Akademie der Wissenschaften Physikalisch-Mathematische Klasse: 261–267. First of a series of papers on this topic.
- Einstein, Albert (1926), "Die Ursache der Mäanderbildung der Flussläufe und des sogenannten Baerschen Gesetzes", Die Naturwissenschaften 14 (11): 223–224,Bibcode:1926NW.....14..223E, doi:10.1007/BF01510300. On Baer's law and meanders in the courses of rivers.
- Einstein, Albert; Podolsky, Boris; Rosen, Nathan (15 May 1935), "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?", Physical Review 47 (10): 777–780, Bibcode:1935PhRv...47..777E,doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777
- Einstein, Albert (1940), "On Science and Religion", Nature(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic) 146 (3706): 605,Bibcode:1940Natur.146..605E, doi:10.1038/146605a0,ISBN 0-7073-0453-9
- Einstein, Albert et al. (4 December 1948), "To the editors",New York Times (Melville, New York: AIP, American Inst. of Physics), ISBN 0-7354-0359-7
- Einstein, Albert (May 1949), "Why Socialism?", Monthly Review, archived from the original on 11 January 2006, retrieved 16 January 2006
- Einstein, Albert (1950), "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation", Scientific American, CLXXXII (4): 13–17
- Einstein, Albert (1954), Ideas and Opinions, New York: Random House, ISBN 0-517-00393-7
- Einstein, Albert (1969), Albert Einstein, Hedwig und Max Born: Briefwechsel 1916–1955 (in German), Munich: Nymphenburger Verlagshandlung, ISBN 3-88682-005-X
- Einstein, Albert (1979), Autobiographical Notes, Paul Arthur Schilpp (Centennial ed.), Chicago: Open Court, ISBN 0-87548-352-6. The chasing a light beam thought experiment is described on pages 48–51.
- Collected Papers: Stachel, John, Martin J. Klein, a. J. Kox, Michel Janssen, R. Schulmann, Diana Komos Buchwald and others (Eds.) (1987–2006), The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Vol. 1–10, Princeton University Press Further information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of the Einstein Papers Project and on thePrinceton University Press Einstein Page
See also the Wikipedia articles ( control click)
Notes
- Jump up^ "Albert's intellectual growth was strongly fostered at home. His mother, a talented pianist, ensured the children's musical education. His father regularly read Schiller and Heine aloud to the family. Uncle Jakob challenged Albert with mathematical problems, which he solved with 'a deep feeling of happiness'." More significant were the weekly visits of Max Talmud from 1889 through 1894 during which time he introduced the boy to popular scientific texts that brought to an end a short-lived religious phase, convincing him that 'a lot in the Bible stories could not be true'. A textbook of plane geometry that he quickly worked through led on to an avid self-study of mathematics, several years ahead of the school curriculum.[18]
References
- Jump up^ "Mohammad Raziuddin Siddiqui". Ias.ac.in. 2 January 1998. Archived from the original on 1 June 2004. Retrieved 3 April 2011.
- ^ Jump up to:a b c Whittaker, E. (1955). "Albert Einstein. 1879-1955".Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 1: 37–67. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1955.0005. JSTOR 769242.
- Jump up^ Zahar, Élie (2001), Poincaré's Philosophy. From Conventionalism to Phenomenology, Carus Publishing Company, Chapter 2, p.41, ISBN 0-8126-9435-X.
- Jump up^ David Bodanis, E = mc2: A Biography of the World's Most Famous Equation (New York: Walker, 2000).
- Jump up^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921". Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on 5 October 2008. Retrieved 6 March 2007.
- ^ Jump up to:a b "Scientific Background on the Nobel Prize in Physics 2011. The accelerating universe." (page 2)Nobelprize.org.
- Jump up^ Hans-Josef, Küpper (2000). "Various things about Albert Einstein". einstein-website.de. Retrieved 18 July 2009.
- ^ Jump up to:a b Paul Arthur Schilpp, editor (1951), Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, Volume II, New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers (Harper Torchbook edition), pp. 730–746His non-scientific works include: About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein(1930), "Why War?" (1933, co-authored by Sigmund Freud), The World As I See It (1934), Out of My Later Years (1950), and a book on science for the general reader,The Evolution of Physics (1938, co-authored by Leopold Infeld).
- Jump up^ WordNet for Einstein.
- ^ Jump up to:a b c d "Albert Einstein – Biography". Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on 6 March 2007. Retrieved 7 March 2007.
- Jump up^ John J. Stachel (2002), Einstein from "B" to "Z", Springer, pp. 59–61, ISBN 978-0-8176-4143-6, retrieved 20 February 2011
- ^ Jump up to:a b "The Legend of the Dull-Witted Child Who Grew Up to Be a Genius". Albert Einstein archives. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
- Jump up^ "Frequently asked questions". einstein-website.de. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
- Jump up^ "Left Handed Einstein". Being Left Handed.com. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
- Jump up^ Schilpp (Ed.), P. A. (1979), Albert Einstein – Autobiographical Notes, Open Court Publishing Company, pp. 8–9
- Jump up^ M. Talmey, The Relativity Theory Simplified and the Formative Period of its Inventor. Falcon Press, 1932, pp. 161–164.
- Jump up^ Dudley Herschbach, "Einstein as a Student", Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, pp. 4–5, web:HarvardChem-Einstein-PDF
- Jump up^ Einstein as a Student, pp. 3–5.
- Jump up^ A. Fölsing, Albert Einstein, 1997, pp. 30–31.
- Jump up^ Albert Einstein Collected Papers, vol. 1 (1987), doc. 5.
- Jump up^ Mehra, Jagdish (2001), "Albert Einstein's first paper", The Golden Age of Physics, World Scientific, ISBN 981-02-4985-3
- Jump up^ Einstein Collected Papers, Vol. 1 (1987, eds. J. Stachel et al.), p. 11
- Jump up^ A. Fölsing, Albert Einstein, 1997, pp. 36–37.
- Jump up^ Highfield & Carter (1993, pp. 21,31,56–57)
- Jump up^ A. Fölsing, Albert Einstein, 1997, p. 40.
- Jump up^ Collected Papers, vol. 1, docs. 21-27.
- Jump up^ Albert Einstein Collected Papers, vol. 1, 1987, doc. 67.
- Jump up^ Troemel-Ploetz, D., "Mileva Einstein-Marić: The Woman Who Did Einstein's Mathematics", Women's Studies Int. Forum, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 415–432, 1990.
- Jump up^ Walker, Evan Harris (February 1989), Did Einstein Espouse his Spouse's Ideas? (PDF), Physics Today, retrieved 24 July 2012.
- Jump up^ Pais, A., Einstein Lived Here, Oxford University Press, 1994, pp. 1–29.
- Jump up^ Holton, G., Einstein, History, and Other Passions, Harvard University Press, 1996, pp. 177–193.
- Jump up^ Stachel, J., Einstein from B to Z, Birkhäuser, 2002, pp. 26–38; 39–55. philoscience.unibe.ch
- Jump up^ Martinez, A. A., "Handling evidence in history: the case of Einstein's Wife." School Science Review, 86 (316), March 2005, pp. 49–56. PDF
- Jump up^ J. Renn & R. Schulmann, Albert Einstein/Mileva Marić: The Love Letters, 1992, pp. 73–74, 78.
- Jump up^ A. Calaprice & T. Lipscombe, Albert Einstein: A Biography, 2005, pp. 22–23.
- Jump up^ Highfield & Carter 1993, p. 216
- Jump up^ Fölsing 1997, p. 82.
- Jump up^ Biography of Grossmann by Mactutor
- Jump up^ Now the Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property, retrieved 16 October 2006. See also their FAQ about Einstein and the Institute
- Jump up^ Peter Galison, "Einstein's Clocks: The Question of Time"Critical Inquiry 26, no. 2 (Winter 2000): 355–389.
- Jump up^ Peter Galison, "Einstein's Clocks: The Question of Time"Critical Inquiry 26, no. 2 (Winter 2000).
- Jump up^ Galison, Peter (2003), Einstein's Clocks, Poincaré's Maps: Empires of Time, New York: W.W. Norton, ISBN 0-393-02001-0
- Jump up^ Einstein, Albert (1901). "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritatserscheinungen". Annalen der Physik 309 (3): 513–523. Bibcode:1901AnP...309..513E.doi:10.1002/andp.19013090306.
- Jump up^ Einstein, Albert. "A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions". Investigations on the Theory of the Brownian Movement. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-1-60796-285-4. Retrieved 7 August 2013.
- Jump up^ "Eine Neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen". ETH Zürich. 1905. Retrieved 26 September 2011.
- Jump up^ "Avogadro's number". Retrieved 1 August 2013.
- Jump up^ "Universität Zürich: Geschichte". Uzh.ch. 2 December 2010. Retrieved 3 April 2011.
- Jump up^ Kant, Horst. "Albert Einstein and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin". in Renn, Jürgen. "Albert Einstein – Chief Engineer of the Universe: One Hundred Authors for Einstein." Ed. Renn, Jürgen. Wiley-VCH. 2005. pp. 166–169. ISBN 3-527-40574-7
- Jump up^ Calaprice, Alice; Lipscombe, Trevor (2005), Albert Einstein: a biography, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. xix, ISBN 0-313-33080-8, Timeline, p. xix
- Jump up^ Heilbron, 2000, p. 84.
- Jump up^ Andrzej, Stasiak (2003), "Myths in science", EMBO Reports 4 (3): 236, doi:10.1038/sj.embor.embor779, retrieved 31 March 2007
- Jump up^ Hoffman and Dukas (1972), pp. 145–148; Fölsing (1997), pp. 499–508.
- Jump up^ "As Einstein Sees American", Einstein's World, a 1931 reprint with minor changes, of his 1921 essay.
- ^ Jump up to:a b Holton, Gerald. "The migration of physicists to the United States", Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, April 1984 pp. 18-24
- ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Isaacson, Walter. Einstein: His Life and Universe, Simon & Schuster (2007)
- ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Isaacson, Walter.Einstein: His Life and Universe, Simon & Schuster (2007) pp. 407–410
- ^ Jump up to:a b c Chaplin, Charles. Charles Chaplin: My Autobiography, Simon and Schuster, N.Y. (1964)
- Jump up^ Fölsing (1997), p. 659.
- Jump up^ Isaacson (2007), p. 404.
- Jump up^ "Albert Einstein: How I See the World" on YouTube,PBS
- Jump up^ Einstein, Albert, Ideas and Opinions, New York: Random House, 1954 ISBN 0-517-00393-7
- ^ Jump up to:a b Gilbert, Martin. Churchill and the Jews, Henry Holt and Company, N.Y. (2007) pp. 101, 176
- Jump up^ Reisman, Arnold. "What a Freshly Discovered Einstein Letter Says About Turkey Today", History News Network,, George Masons University, Nov. 20, 2006
- Jump up^ "Albert Einstein letter to İsmet İnönü, Premier of Turkey in 1933", Istanbullite.com, Nov. 8, 2010
- Jump up^ "3 October 1933 – Albert Einstein speaks at the Hall",Royalalberthall.com, Oct. 9, 2013
- ^ Jump up to:a b c d Clark, Ronald W. (1971), Einstein: The Life and Times, Avon, ISBN 0-380-44123-3
- Jump up^ Fölsing (1997), pp. 649, 678.
- ^ Jump up to:a b Linda G. Arntzenius (2011). Institute for Advanced Study. Arcadia Publishing. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-7385-7409-7.
- Jump up^ Fölsing (1997), pp. 686–687.
- Jump up^ "In Brief". Institute for Advanced Study. Archived from the original on 29 March 2010. Retrieved 4 March 2010.
- ^ Jump up to:a b c Evans-Pritchard, Ambrose (29 August 2010)."Obama could kill fossil fuels overnight with a nuclear dash for thorium". The Daily Telegraph (London).
- Jump up^ Gosling, F.G. The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb, U.S. Department of Energy, History Division (January 1999) p. vii
- Jump up^ Page 198–200 in Lanouette, William; Silard, Bela (1992).Genius in the Shadows: A Biography of Leo Szilárd: The Man Behind The Bomb. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 0-684-19011-7.
- Jump up^ Page 199 in Lanouette, William; Silard, Bela (1992).Genius in the Shadows: A Biography of Leo Szilárd: The Man Behind The Bomb. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 0-684-19011-7.
- Jump up^ Diehl, Sarah J.; Moltz, James Clay. Nuclear Weapons and Nonproliferation: a Reference Handbook, ABC-CLIO (2008) p. 218
- Jump up^ Pages 15–16 in Hewlett, Richard G.; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). The New World, 1939–1946. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0-520-07186-7.OCLC 637004643.
- Jump up^ Einstein, Albert (1952). "On My Participation in the Atom Bomb Project".
- Jump up^ Einstein: The Life and Times by Ronald Clark. page 752
- Jump up^ Robin Higham, "Academic Intelligence", Military Affairs, vol. 50, no. 3 (July 1986), 148-155, quote 153
- ^ Jump up to:a b c Jerome, Fred, and Taylor, Rodger. Einstein on Race and Racism Rutgers University Press, (2006)
- Jump up^ Calaprice, Alice (2005) The new quotable Einstein. pp.148–149 Princeton University Press, 2005. See alsoOdyssey in Climate Modeling, Global Warming, and Advising Five Presidents
- ^ Jump up to:a b Robeson, Paul. Paul Robeson Speaks, Citadel (2002) p. 333
- ^ Jump up to:a b c d e “Albert Einstein, Civil Rights activist”, Harvard Gazette, April 12, 2007
- ^ Jump up to:a b c Rowe, David E. and Schulmann, Robert, editors.Einstein on Politics, Princeton University Press (2007)
- Jump up^ "ISRAEL: Einstein Declines". Time magazine. 1 December 1952. Retrieved 31 March 2010.
- Jump up^ "The relative beauty of the violin". The Independent. 28 January 2011.
- Jump up^ "Einstein and his love of music" (PDF). Physics World. January 2005.
- ^ Jump up to:a b c d Botstein, Leon; Galison, Peter; Holton, Gerald James; Schweber, Silvan S. Einstein for the 21st century: His Legacy in Science, Art, and Modern Culture, Princeton Univ. Press (2008) pp. 161–164
- Jump up^ Cariaga, Daniel, "Not Taking It with You: A Tale of Two Estates," Los Angeles Times, 22 December 1985. Retrieved April 2012.
- Jump up^ Auction listing by RR Auction, auction closed 13 October 2010.
- Jump up^ Einstein, Albert (May 1949). "Why Socialism?".Monthly Review (New York) 1 (1). Retrieved 29 July 2012.
- Jump up^ David E. Rowe and Robert Schulmann (8 June 2007)."What Were Einstein's Politics?". In David A., Walsh.History News Network (George Mason University). Retrieved 29 July 2012.
- Jump up^ Isaacson, Walter (2008). Einstein: His Life and Universe. New York: Simon and Schuster, pp. 390.
- Jump up^ Einstein, Albert "Gelegentliches", Soncino Gesellschaft, Berlin, 1929, p. 9 "This firm belief, a belief bound up with a deep feeling, in a superior mind that reveals itself in the world of experience, represents my conception of God. In common parlance this may be described as "pantheistic" (Spinoza)."
- Jump up^ Hoffmann, Banesh (1972). Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel. New York: New American Library, p. 95. "It seems to me that the idea of a personal God is an anthropological concept which I cannot take seriously. I feel also not able to imagine some will or goal outside the human sphere. My views are near those of Spinoza: admiration for the beauty of and belief in the logical simplicity of the order which we can grasp humbly and only imperfectly."
- Jump up^ The Case of the Scientist with a Pulsating Mass, 14 June 2002, retrieved 11 June 2007
- Jump up^ Albert Einstein Archives (April 1955), "Draft of projected Telecast Israel Independence Day, April 1955 (last statement ever written)", Einstein Archives Online,archived from the original on 13 March 2007, retrieved 14 March 2007
- Jump up^ Cohen, J.R.; Graver, L.M. (November 1995), "The ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm of Albert Einstein",Surgery, Gynecology & Obstetrics 170 (5): 455–8,PMID 2183375.
- Jump up^ The Long, Strange Journey of Einstein's Brain,National Public Radio, retrieved 3 October 2007
- Jump up^ O'Connor, J.J.; Robertson, E.F. (1997), "Albert Einstein", The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews
- Jump up^ Late City, ed. (18 April 1955). "Dr. Albert Einstein Dies in Sleep at 76; World Mourns Loss of Great Scientist: DR. EINSTEIN DIES IN HIS SLEEP AT 76 Rupture of Aorta Causes Death--Body Cremated --Memorial Here Set". written at Princeton, NJ. The New York Times CIV (35,514) (New York, NY, published 19 April 1955). p. 1. ISSN 0362-4331.
- Jump up^ Stern, Fritz. Essay, "Einstein's Germany", E = Einstein: His Life, His Thought, and His Influence on Our Culture, Sterling Publishing (2006) pp. 97–118
- ^ Jump up to:a b "Einstein archive at the Instituut-Lorentz". Instituut-Lorentz. 2005. Retrieved on 21 November 2005.
- Jump up^ Das, Ashok (2003). Lectures on quantum mechanics. Hindustan Book Agency. p. 59. ISBN 81-85931-41-0.
- Jump up^ Spielberg, Nathan; Anderson, Bryon D. (1995). Seven ideas that shook the universe (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 263. ISBN 0-471-30606-1.
- Jump up^ Major, Fouad G. (2007). The quantum beat: principles and applications of atomic clocks (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 142. ISBN 0-387-69533-8.
- Jump up^ Lindsay, Robert Bruce; Margenau, Henry (1981).Foundations of physics. Ox Bow Press. p. 330. ISBN 0-918024-17-X.
- ^ Jump up to:a b Hans-Josef Kuepper. "List of Scientific Publications of Albert Einstein". Einstein-website.de. Retrieved 3 April 2011.
- Jump up^ (Einstein 1905d)
- Jump up^ Stachel, John J. (December 2001). Einstein from "B" to "Z". Einstein Studies, Vol. 9. Center for Einstein Studies, Boston University: Springer-Verlag New York, LLC. pp. vi, 15, 90, 131, 215. ISBN 978-0-8176-4143-6.
- Jump up^ For a discussion of the reception of relativity theory around the world, and the different controversies it encountered, see the articles in Thomas F. Glick, ed., The Comparative Reception of Relativity (Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1987), ISBN 90-277-2498-9.
- Jump up^ Pais, Abraham (1982). Subtle is the Lord. The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein. Oxford University Press. pp. 382–386. ISBN 0-19-853907-X.
- Jump up^ Einstein, Albert (1905), "Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt", Annalen der Physik 17 (6): 132–148,Bibcode:1905AnP...322..132E,doi:10.1002/andp.19053220607, retrieved 27 June 2009
- Jump up^ (Einstein 1905a).
- Jump up^ Celebrating Einstein "Solid Cold". U.S. DOE., Office of Scientific and Technical Information, 2011.
- Jump up^ Pais, Abraham (1982), Subtle is the Lord. The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, p. 522, ISBN 0-19-853907-X
- Jump up^ Levenson, Thomas. "Einstein's Big Idea". Public Broadcasting Service. 2005. Retrieved on 25 February 2006.
- Jump up^ Albert Einstein, Nobel lecture in 1921
- Jump up^ van Dongen, Jeroen (2010) Einstein's UnificationCambridge University Press, p.23.
- Jump up^ On 135th Birthday, Einstein still full of surprises, Discover Magazine Blog, Retrieved 14 March 2014
- Jump up^ Quote Reference for Cosmo-Constant, Google Books Archive
- Jump up^ From static to expanding model of universe-Quote Reference on Cosmo-Constant, SPS, May 2012
- Jump up^ 'Brilliant BLunders' by Mario Livio, The New York TImes, Retireved 9 June 2013
- Jump up^ Einstein's lost Theory uncovered: Physicist explored the idea of a steady-state Universe in 1931., Nature, Retrieved 24 February 2014
- Jump up^ [arxiv.org/pdf/1402.0132 arXiv Archive of Einsteins Paper 1]
- Jump up^ [arxiv.org/pdf/1312.2192 arXiv Archive of Einsteins Paper 1]
- Jump up^ Einstein's lost theory describes a Universe without a Big Bang, Retrieved 7 March 2014
- Jump up^ Andrews, Robert (2003). The New Penguin Dictionary of Modern Quotations. Penguin UK. p. 499. ISBN 0-14-196531-2., Extract of page 499
- Jump up^ Video: The Elegant Universe: Part 1 | Watch NOVA Online | PBS Video. Video.pbs.org. Retrieved on 11 May 2012.
- Jump up^ (Einstein 1917b)
- Jump up^ (Einstein 1924)
- Jump up^ Cornell and Wieman Share 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics, 9 October 2001, archived from the original on 10 June 2007, retrieved 11 June 2007
- Jump up^ (Einstein 1950)
- Jump up^ Moore, Walter (1989), Schrödinger: Life and Thought, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-43767-9
- Jump up^ Goettling, Gary. Einstein's refrigerator Georgia Tech Alumni Magazine. 1998. Retrieved on 21 November 2005.Leó Szilárd, a Hungarian physicist who later worked on the Manhattan Project, is credited with the discovery of thechain reaction
- Jump up^ In September 2008 it was reported that Malcolm McCulloch of Oxford University was heading a three-year project to develop more robust appliances that could be used in locales lacking electricity, and that his team had completed a prototype Einstein refrigerator. He was quoted as saying that improving the design and changing the types of gases used might allow the design's efficiency to be quadrupled.Alok, Jha (21 September 2008), "Einstein fridge design can help global cooling", The Guardian (UK),archived from the original on 24 January 2011, retrieved 22 February 2011
- Jump up^ Bohr N. "Discussions with Einstein on Epistemological Problems in Atomic Physics". The Value of Knowledge: A Miniature Library of Philosophy. Marxists Internet Archive. Archived from the original on 13 September 2010. Retrieved 30 August 2010. From Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist (1949), publ. Cambridge University Press, 1949. Niels Bohr's report of conversations with Einstein.
- Jump up^ (Einstein 1969). A reprint of this book was published by Edition Erbrich in 1982, ISBN 3-88682-005-X
- Jump up^ (Einstein 1935)
- Jump up^ "Obituary". New York Times. 12 July 1986. Retrieved 3 April 2011.
- Jump up^ "Letters Reveal Einstein Love Life", BBC News (BBC), 11 July 2006, retrieved 14 March 2007
- Jump up^ Einstein, Corbis Rights Representation, archivedfrom the original on 19 August 2008, retrieved 8 August 2008
- Jump up^ The New Yorker April 1939 pg 69
- Jump up^ McTee, Cindy. "Einstein's Dream for orchestra". Cindymctee.com.
- Jump up^ Golden, Frederic (3 January 2000), "Person of the Century: Albert Einstein", Time, archived from the original on 21 February 2006, retrieved 25 February 2006
Further reading
- Brian, Denis (1996). Einstein: A Life. New York: John Wiley.
- Clark, Ronald (1971). Einstein: The Life and Times. New York: Avon Books.
- Fölsing, Albrecht (1997): Albert Einstein: A Biography. New York: Penguin Viking. (Translated and abridged from the German by Ewald Osers.) ISBN 978-0-670-85545-2
- Highfield, Roger; Carter, Paul (1993). The Private Lives of Albert Einstein. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-16744-9.
- Hoffmann, Banesh, with the collaboration of Helen Dukas (1972): Albert Einstein: Creator and Rebel. London: Hart-Davis, MacGibbon Ltd. ISBN 978-0-670-11181-7
- Isaacson, Walter (2007): Einstein: His Life and Universe. Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, New York. ISBN 978-0-7432-6473-0
- Moring, Gary (2004): The complete idiot's guide to understanding Einstein ( 1st ed. 2000). Indianapolis IN: Alpha books (Macmillan USA). ISBN 0-02-863180-3
- Pais, Abraham (1982): Subtle is the Lord: The science and the life of Albert Einstein. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0. The definitive biography to date.
- Pais, Abraham (1994): Einstein Lived Here. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280672-6
- Parker, Barry (2000): Einstein's Brainchild: Relativity Made Relatively Easy!. Prometheus Books. Illustrated by Lori Scoffield-Beer. A review of Einstein's career and accomplishments, written for the lay public. ISBN 978-1-59102-522-1
- Schweber, Sylvan S. (2008): Einstein and Oppenheimer: The Meaning of Genius. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02828-9.
- Oppenheimer, J.R. (1971): "On Albert Einstein", p. 8–12 inScience and synthesis: an international colloquium organized by Unesco on the tenth anniversary of the death of Albert Einstein and Teilhard de Chardin, Springer-Verlag, 1971, 208 pp. (Lecture delivered at the UNESCO House in Paris on 13 December 1965.) Also published in The New York Review of Books, 17 March 1966, On Albert Einstein by Robert Oppenheimer
External links
- Albert Einstein at DMOZ
- Works by Albert Einstein at Project Gutenberg
Works by Albert Einstein at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)- Works by Albert Einstein (public domain in Canada)
- Einstein's Personal Correspondence: Religion, Politics, The Holocaust, and Philosophy Shapell Manuscript Foundation
- FBI file on Albert Einstein
- Einstein and his love of music, Physics World
- Albert Einstein on NobelPrize.org
- Albert Einstein, videos on History.com
- MIT OpenCourseWare STS.042J/8.225J: Einstein, Oppenheimer, Feynman: Physics in the 20th century at the Wayback Machine (archived June 8, 2011) – free study course that explores the changing roles of physics and physicists during the 20th century
- Albert Einstein Archives Online (80,000+ Documents) (MSNBC, 19 March 2012)
- Einstein's declaration of intention for American citizenship on the World Digital Library
- Albert Einstein Collection at Brandeis University
.jpg)
.jpg)
.png)
